論中美商務(wù)談判的跨文化交際（重點(diǎn)論文網(wǎng)編輯撰寫）

一、 綜述國內(nèi)外對本課題的研究動態(tài)，說明選題的依據(jù)和意義：

隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)全球化時代的到來，國際間的經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易往來愈加頻繁，談判已成為國際商務(wù)活動的重要環(huán)節(jié)，中美兩國的商務(wù)往來尤為如此，貿(mào)易數(shù)額與日俱增。而來自兩種不同文化背景的談判者往往有不同的價值觀和思維方式，也就決定了不同的談判風(fēng)格，如何進(jìn)行有效的跨文化談判的命題便被提上了議事日程。美國西北大學(xué)凱洛格管理學(xué)院研究生院爭端解決研究中心的主任和創(chuàng)始成員珍妮.M.布雷特致力于研究、講學(xué)和咨詢?nèi)颦h(huán)境中的商務(wù)談判策略，他認(rèn)為無論何種商務(wù)談判都存在三大廣受研究的文化特征與談判策略在不同文化間的差異：1）個人主義與集體主義的文化價值觀；2）平等主義與等級主義的文化價值觀；3）溝通的低背景規(guī)范與高背景規(guī)范等，這三個方面構(gòu)成了跨文化談判困惑的淵源，有效的跨文化交際不僅能夠化解矛盾，而且還能走向協(xié)同。

因此，在中美商務(wù)談判中了解彼此的文化，熟悉中美商務(wù)談判的文化差異，探討談判差異的文化淵源，以進(jìn)行有效的跨文化交際，將有助于中方談判者更好的了解自己，并從客觀的角度了解對方，從而避免因文化差異導(dǎo)致的沖突的產(chǎn)生或激化，揚(yáng)長避短，制定出合理的談判策略，促進(jìn)中美雙方貿(mào)易往來，實(shí)現(xiàn)互惠，共同發(fā)展。

二、 研究的基本內(nèi)容，擬解決的主要問題：

不同國家間的文化差異使得他們之間的商業(yè)風(fēng)格迥然不同，在跨文化交際中，交際者為達(dá)到交際目的，應(yīng)掌握影響商務(wù)談判的文化因素及其在商務(wù)談判中的體現(xiàn)。本文從中美雙方的文化差異入手，了解雙方不同的談判風(fēng)格和差異的文化淵源，并分析跨文化交際在中美商務(wù)談判中的具體體現(xiàn)。通過樹立跨文化交際意識，寬容不同文化，謹(jǐn)守中立，從而減少或消除因文化差異引起的沖突和摩擦，克服溝通障礙，以調(diào)適文化差異，引導(dǎo)談判者跨越文化邊界，達(dá)成增值交易，解決爭端，維持關(guān)系，實(shí)現(xiàn)跨文化談判的目的。

三、 研究的步驟、方法、措施及進(jìn)度安排：

1.研究步驟：

(1)在指導(dǎo)老師的幫助下，通過網(wǎng)絡(luò)資源以及圖書館資料，收集所寫論題的相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)，了解國內(nèi)外對中美商務(wù)談判中跨文化交際及其文化差異的淵源的研究狀態(tài)和研究成果，對選題作了進(jìn)一步修改及完善，得出該選題的可行性，并定題確定了論文題目“中美商務(wù)談判的跨文化交際”；

2． (2)整理、總結(jié)和綜合已有資料，如期收到指導(dǎo)老師下達(dá)的任務(wù)書；

(3)在國內(nèi)外一些期刊報紙和網(wǎng)絡(luò)上收集有關(guān)中美文化的相關(guān)理論和中美

談判談判的分析資料，并了解中美跨文化談判所取得的成果，為研究論題

供有力論據(jù)；

(4)綜合已有的資料和分析結(jié)果，完成開題報告，在指導(dǎo)老師的指導(dǎo)下，完

論文提綱，從分析中美文化的差異及其淵源、了解影響商務(wù)談判的文化

素和跨文化交際在商務(wù)談判中的體現(xiàn)，并提出成功達(dá)成跨文化談判的建

四個方面入手完成初稿，并交由指導(dǎo)老師審閱；

(5)根據(jù)指導(dǎo)老師的修改意見，反復(fù)修改開題報告，進(jìn)一步完善論文的結(jié)構(gòu)

與內(nèi)容。

(6)交第二稿，由指導(dǎo)老師審稿，最后定稿，進(jìn)行答辯。




2.方法及措施：

通過圖書館以及因特網(wǎng)查找中美文化的相關(guān)理論及中美商務(wù)談判的相

關(guān)實(shí)務(wù)和案例分析，結(jié)合相關(guān)時事報道,利用實(shí)證分析的方法分析、撰寫，

與指導(dǎo)老師密切聯(lián)系,尋求指導(dǎo)和修改意見；與同學(xué)之間交流和溝通。




3.進(jìn)度安排:




四、主要參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1] Mitchell, Charles. International Business Culture. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Press, 2000.

[2] Foster, D. A. Bargaining Across Borders: How to Negotiate Business Successfully

Anywhere in the World. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992.

[3] Curry, Jeffery Edmund. International Negotiating. Beijing: Economic Science Press,2002.

[4] Davis, Linell. Cross-cultural Communication in Action. Beijing: Foreign Language

Teaching and Research Press, 2001.

[5] Berger, Mel. Cross-cultural Team Building: Guidelines for More Effective

Communication and Negotiation. London and New York: McGraw-Hill Every great company starts with a great name., 1996.

[6] Gelfand, Michele J. & Jeanne M. Brett. The Handbook of Negotiation and Culture.

California: Stand ford Business Books, 2004.

[7] 張麗娟、秦鳳鳴譯：《商務(wù)外交》。北京：經(jīng)濟(jì)科學(xué)出版社，2003年。

[8] 范徽、王風(fēng)華、楊豪樹、朱丹虹等譯：《全球談判》。北京:人民大學(xué)出版社，

2005年。

[9] 李品媛主編：《國際商務(wù)談判》。武漢：武漢大學(xué)出版社，2006年。

[10]王正元：《國際商務(wù)文化》。 沈陽： 遼寧教育出版社，2001年。

[11]肖云南、全英主編：《國際商務(wù)談判》。北京：清華大學(xué)出版社、北方交通

大學(xué)出版社，2003年。

[12]林大津：《跨文化交際研究—與英美人交往指南》。福建： 福建人民

出版社，1996年。

[13]劉園：《國際商務(wù)談判》。北京：中國商務(wù)出版社，2005年。

[14]劉園：《國際商務(wù)談判》。北京：對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)出版社，2006年。

[15]李信：《中西方文化比較概論》。 北京： 航空工業(yè)出版社，2003年。




五、 指導(dǎo)教師意見：







On Intercultural Communication in Sino-US Business Negotiation

論中美商務(wù)談判的跨文化交際

Abstract




Negotiators with different cultural backgrounds need to employ different negotiating strategies. Cultural differences will certainly result in cultural conflicts. In Sino-US business negotiation, it is key for successful intercultural communications to learn two different cultures and negotiating styles and use strategies which are adapt to them.

This thesis focuses on the differences between Chinese and American cultures and analyses roots of the differences and two different negotiating styles. It is developed by three important parts: differences between Chinese and American cultures and their roots; factors of culture that influence business negotiation; the embodiment of intercultural communication in business negotiations; recommendations for successful business negotiations.




Key Words: culture; cultural differences; negotiating style; intercultural

communication

摘 要

不同文化背景的談判者需要運(yùn)用不同的談判方式和策略，而文化差異則必然會引起文化沖突。在中美商務(wù)談判中，把握兩國間的文化差異及不同的談判風(fēng)格，并采用與之相適應(yīng)的談判策略，是成功跨文化交際的關(guān)鍵。

本文從中美雙方的文化差異入手，分析差異的文化淵源和雙方不同的談判風(fēng)格。論文由四個主要部分進(jìn)行展開：中美文化差異及其淵源；影響商務(wù)談判的文化因素；跨文化交際在商務(wù)談判中的體現(xiàn)，并就如何成功達(dá)成跨文化交際提出了一些建議。

關(guān)鍵詞:文化、文化差異、談判風(fēng)格、跨文化交際

Contents




Introduction……..…….…………………….………………………………..…1

1 Culture and Cultural Differences…………..…………..……....………....…...1

1.1 What is Culture……...…………..…………………………………….….1

1.2 Cultural Differences and Their Roots…………..…...…………….……...2

2 Embodiment of Intercultural Communication in Negotiations................5

2.1 Factors of Culture That Influence Negotiations…………….…..…..…...5

2.2 Different Negotiating Styles Between China and America…....….…….11

3 Recommendations for Successful Intercultural Negotiations.……................12

3.1 Understanding Cultural Differences ……….…………………………...12

3.2 Improving Intercultural Communication Competence…………....….....13

3.3 Being Patient in Intercultural Communications……………....……...…14

Conclusion……………………………………………………...……...….15

Works Cited…………………………………..…………….....….…..…17

Acknowledgements………………………………………….......…….....18




Introduction

Opportunities of intercultural business negotiations are on the dramatic increase. Business practice shows that successful business negotiations are greatly affected by cultures. Culture forges people's values, beliefs, and guides people' behaviors (Gelfand & Brett 19). Thus, international negotiators tend to act according to their own values shaped by cultures; Negotiators from different cultures prefer different approaches to negotiation, surely resulting in varied negotiating styles.

When two parties at the negotiation table pursue their interests respectively, problems often crop up and the potential for misunderstanding each other is great. Discussing is frequently hindered because of different communication styles. Even though negotiators are technologically well prepared, it is not so easy to reach a satisfactory agreement between negotiators across cultures. Negotiations can be easily broken down due to a lack of mutual understanding of the cultures. Therefore, learning the opponent’s culture and having a good understanding of factors of culture that influence negotiations will be critically important if one wants to succeed in cross-cultural negotiations. As Sino-US negotiation increasingly involves cultural factors, the relationship between culture and negotiation has attracted more and more academic attention. Research on international negotiation concerning cultural variables has developed only several decades, and is still largely expected in the future.




1 Culture and Cultural Differences

1.1 What is Culture

As we all know, culture is not a new but rather complex topic, which has been heatedly discussed in the past decades. There are more than 160 definitions given in the anthropology literature and the term culture has been defined in many ways. Culture can be viewed as consisting of everything that is human made(Foster 15); a set of shared and enduring meanings, values, and beliefs that characterize national, ethnic, or other groups and orient their behavior(Davis 7); and in 1980, Hofstede defined culture as “collective programming of the mind which distinguishes members of one human group from another”(Hofstede 9). Thus, we can say that culture can include language, arts morals, beliefs, custom and even everything in our life.

In this thesis, culture is defined as a set of learned and enduring values, beliefs, knowledge, standards, laws and behaviors shared by a group of members and determines how the member acts, feels and views one and others. A society’s or a nation’s culture is passed on from generation to generation and people learn culture in everyday life by communicating with their family members and those around them. Culture directs people’s judgment and opinion, and the standards for what is right or wrong. And very often, the people of a certain culture tend to act according to values, beliefs, customs and standards provided by their culture, which will usually manifest itself in how an individual view space, time, responds to others, communicates, does business, negotiates a contract or deals with a potential trade partner. So, to have a good understanding of your opponent’s culture can help predict his behavior and develop sound strategies for deal-makings and negotiations.

1.2 Cultural Differences and Their Roots

With the globalization of economy, as well as the fast progressing of transportation and communication means, the way of doing business has changed a lot and businessmen are given much more opportunities to touch more cultures than ever before. When transacting business in some foreign countries, Americans tend to employ what they consider professional behavior. Unfortunately, they are often given blank stares, pretended half-smiles and something missing. Even they are perceived as aggressive and insensitive to another culture, which is resulted from cultural difference. No country is completely self-sufficient and can develop itself without any connection to others. Many companies have their subsidiaries abroad and foreign products can be found in their home market. Today, many businessmen often find them working in a multi-cultural environment, dealing with a great number of differences ranging from communicating styles to social etiquette to values. It has been a well-known fact that people across nations and cultures behave and believe differently. Sitaram and Cogdell’s reasoning reminds us of this point: Members of different cultures look differently at the world around them. Some believe that the physical world is real. Others believe that it is just an illusion. Some believe everything around them is permanent while others say it is transient. Nations and cultures differ in terms of how they perceive the specific object and phenomenon. For instance, for the white flower, most Asians respond negatively because it is related to mourning death while American brides hold it in hands on the happy weddings.

Age is highly respected in eastern countries especially in China, as it is a sign of great wisdom(林大津66). Young people are taught to respect the old when they are children. On the contrary, Americans encourage and promote those who are qualified and competent regardless of age and the young don’t see the old in the same sense as Chinese and do. American culture is founded to be individualistic, whereas Chinese cultures are characterized as collective.

We have talked something about culture differences, but it is far from enough to only know which hand used to accept a gift or how much time you should spend in the beginning stage of a business negotiation. To better understand the complicated matter “culture”, we should know the sources of cultural variation, or the deep roots we called. Why cultures differ in perceiving the world? Why do some cultures worship individualism while other cultures value collectiveness? Why do members of some cultures emphasize direct verbal communication, whereas others prefer indirectness and even silence? To know the answers, we need to explore the roots of western culture represented by the United States and eastern culture typically founded in China. What motivate these cultural differences? There are several points to be explained in the perspective of religion, philosophy, and history. For the religion, Christianity should come first as it is a dominant religion of about a billion people around the whole world. “In United States, it is estimated that 86% percent of the population is Christian.”(Foster 94）Christians believe in God who is almighty and the Creator of everything, heaven, earth , moon ,animals and human. The American concept of the core value “individualism” can be linked with Christianity. God is a great hero because he creates the world including human beings. God is everywhere and he can hear what you say and know what you do. Besides, Jesus is the son of God. He is also the Savoir of the world. In the stories of Bible, Jesus traveled from place to place helping the poor and the sick. They are the images Americans worship strongly.

Whereas, Confucianism is a fundamental philosophic thought that has shaped not only Chinese culture but also East Asian thought pattern for 2,500 years. Confucianism can be conceived as involving six core values:(a)moral cultivation,(b)interpersonal relationships,(c)family orientation,(d)respect for age and hierarchy,(e)avoidance of conflict and need for harmony,(f)concept of face. In moral cultivation, trust features crucially in Confucianism. According to Confucian, a gentleman must keep his word and be sincere to his friends. So, in Chinese culture, trust is preeminently valued. Chinese do business only with those they trust. Family is the root of Chinese society, a Chinese belongs to the family rather than himself. This is why Chinese culture is considered typically as collective or group orientation. Individualism has negative meanings .A basic tenet of Confucianism is harmony. It stresses maintaining harmony in all relationships by controlling emotion, avoiding conflict and competition, saving face, and so forth. All influenced by Confucianism deeply.

The exploration of the cultural roots cannot be completed if not involving history. The influence of history on shaping people’s thought and behavior is evident. Historical events and giants of the United States teach young generation that everything is possible if you work hard. Benjamin Franklin offered a good example. In addition, American history is full of wars. Through several great wars, the nation was founded ultimately, which doubtlessly forged the competitive awareness of Americans. And those frontiers’ heroic behavior is another source of the importance of individualism. Compared to America, China is a conservative and isolated country. Formerly, agriculture depended on small families and peasants lived on the land. They had to know how to work and live together. Thus, cooperative efforts over centuries contribute a lot to the collectiveness and group orientation. I want to stress that culture is significant in international business interaction. We should know not only what culture is, but also the cultural differences and their roots.




2 Embodiment of Intercultural Communication in Negotiations

2.1 Factors of Culture That Influence Negotiations

In terms of international business negotiation styles of the West and the east, represented respectively by the United States and China, have attracted many experts to make a comparison because distinguished differences do exist in the two kinds of cultures that are deep-seated reasons why the westerners negotiate quite differently from the easterners do and how these differences are produced. The two different negotiating styles exemplified by the US and China are typical enough to be compared in the studies of international business negotiation. Negotiations with different cultural backgrounds vary in their preference for negotiating strategies. Cultural factors are one of the most important parts responsible for the success or failure of the negotiations in which people with different cultures meet together. (Curry 212)

2.1.1 Low-context Versus High-context Communication

American culture relies on direct, explicit communication, while Chinese culture prefers indirect, implicit styles. The way people communicate, including verbal non-verbal language directly affects business negotiations across cultures. In high-context cultures, people prefer to communicate allusively rather than directly. Meaning embedded in the message and must be inferred to be understood. Directness and blunt expressions are much disliked. Truth is not needed when a lie can avoid unpleasantness. High-context speakers are more prone to understand non-verbal implication than those in low-context. Chinese believe in what words fail to convey can be told through gesture, body movement, and even silence Chinese are highly uncomfortable with direct conflict. They talk around it or give indirect hints that they disagree. They hardly say “no” directly. Chinese negotiators tend to communicate with less eye contract, fewer negative expressions, and more period of silence. All these propensities are associated with the requirements of maintaining face and group harmony. In these cultures, shared feelings of obligation and honor take the place of impersonal legal sanctions—thus the importance of long and protracted negotiations that never seem to get to the point. Part of the purpose of negotiating for a people from a high-context culture is to get to know the potential partner.

The low-context communication, exemplified by the United States, reserves quite a different role for language. “The squeaky wheel gets the grease”, the popular saying explains that in the United Stated, people are encouraged to “speak up” and make sure their views are heard. In low-context communication, people tend to speak directly and explicitly. Everything is needed to state and meaning is on the surface of the message. Information is explicit while indirectness is not welcomed.” Straight-from-the-shoulder” talk is admired. “Get to the point” is the heartfelt reaction to small talk and evasive formulation (Gelfand & Brett 33). Refutation is paid little attention. Americans are considerably uncomfortable with silence in the negotiation with Chinese. A direct, clear style of communication is valued while vagueness is not well regarded. American culture tends to be low-context, in which a much portion of information-processing comes from detail-oriented spoken word. Difference between high-context and low-context communication styles can produce difficulty and misunderstanding when negotiators are from these two kinds of cultures. For example, negotiators in low-context regard those in high-context as incredible because their indirectness and vagueness do not show the enthusiasm for doing business. While negotiators in high-context perceive their counterparts as aggressive and even rude due to their directness. Such problems are still expected in increase and will be explained further in the later part concerning how negotiation is influenced. Doubtlessly, communication can directly affect negotiations across cultures.

2.1.2 Focus of Responsibility: Individualism Versus Collectivism

Individualism and collectivism, the most widely studied cultural values, distinguish American culture that places individual interests above group’s needs and Chinese culture that is just opposite. American culture is highly individualistic. Asian cultures, like Chinese culture is typically collectivist. In individualistic culture, individuals are expected to take care of themselves and to value their needs over that of the collective—the group, community and society. Rights and duties are defined by laws. Society regards individual achievements and legal institutions protect individual rights. Task is put before relationship.

Collectivism emphasizes common interests, cooperation and interdependence. The duty to one’s family, company, society is paramount. Relationships are based on mutual self-interests. Maintaining harmony within groups is obtained at all cost. Society rewards individual as a member of a group rather than an individual. Law supports collective interests above individual rights. Collectivism is characterized by a tight social framework where people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them when they are in trouble. In exchange for this, they feel they owe absolute loyalty to the group. Its opposite is individualism, which refers to a loosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to look after their own interests and those of their immediate family. This is made possible because of the large amount of freedom that such a society allows individuals. Individualistic culture values open conflict that is usually resolved through debate, argument, or even court. While collectivistic culture tends to minimize conflict, which is resolved by group opinions, the third party, or informal methods of conciliation. Individualistic culture has linear logic while collectivistic culture encourages abstract, general agreement over specific, explicit issues.

An American might say, “I am a qualified manager. I am responsible for my group.” While Chinese negotiators express in a different way, “I am the manager of MK Company. We are working together to expect a good deal with you.” Individualistic negotiators tend to pay much attention to the task rather than relationship building. They emphasize short-term interests. “A deal is a deal”. Individualistic negotiators usually have personal rights to make decisions. They often take risks and burden responsibility personally. On the contrary, collectivistic negotiators emphasize relationship rather than task. They do business with you but not your company. Long-term interests are the most important. Face must be preserved at all costs. Collectivistic negotiators are very uncomfortable with the conflict and try to avoid it. Due to the group-oriented culture, collectivistic negotiators made decisions by a consensus method rather than individual decision-making. “The nail that sticks out will be pounded down”, so, all the actions and decisions taken during negotiation should be agreed through the whole group.

2.1.3 Power Distance: Egalitarianism Versus Hierarchy

Egalitarianism versus hierarchy is another cultural factor that has an impact on negotiation across borders. Egalitarianism, also defined as low-power distance by Hofstede, emphasizes all persons are equal and no person is superior to another. Managers are given power based on knowledge and expertise, rather than status or position alone. Negotiators hold power responsible for different roles of the process. Persons at various power levels see one another just as fundamentally different.

Negotiators do not pay much attention to titles; even they are uncomfortable with the formal speech. They often address people they hardly know by their first name, which can cause unpleasantness in hierarchical cultures. Negotiator as individual is entitled more power and takes more responsibility when compared to those in hierarchical cultures. Egalitarianism tends to more individualistic in nature.

Hierarchical culture, namely high-power distance, emphasizes differentiated social status often based on age and seniority. Social status reflects social power. Persons who hold inferior power are expected to show respect to those who are more powerful. Title is used. In hierarchical culture, managers at higher power level have responsibility to tell what to do; the lower-status employees usually accept orders while arguing with their boss is no encouraged, especially in public, because this is considered to risk the status, threaten social structure, and disrespect the superior member. The norm in such a culture is not to challenge higher-status members, whose decision-making role and they look to directions from the upper. A consensus style is advocated. High-power distance cultures tend to be collectivistic in nature. Negotiators from hierarchical and egalitarian cultures may use power influence quite differently in negotiation, which can be seen in the commercial relationships between the Chinese—a hierarchical culture and the United States, an egalitarian culture.

2.1.4 Time Orientation: Past Versus Future

Cultures differ in time conception and have different ways of organizing and negotiation process. Many in the West, especially Americans are driven by the clock. They live by schedules and deadlines and thrive on being punctual for meeting and efficient in doing business. American negotiators are known for their speed and strive for getting through the content of the negotiation as efficiently as possible. Americans usually arrive five minutes earlier for a business negotiation and begin their business ate the appointed time. They always seem to be in a hurry and under pressure for results. Due to the deadlines set by their leader, American negotiators tend to give away more than it should be just in order to finish the task on time and move on to the next item. So, it is easy for them to make concession when compared to Asian counterparts.

In China, people have different view on time from that of the United States. Time is not money but a weapon (Berger 97). For many Chinese negotiators, how much time is required to close a task is not as important as the job itself. Producing an agreement in a short time may be one of the least concerns in negotiation. The Chinese generally believe that enough time should be invested into building warm relationship before really starting the issue under negotiation. They view time as endless and they are long-term oriented. They are patient and do not run for the deadlines. So, Chinese negotiators seldom make concession until the last minute of negotiation. Very often, it takes more time to close a negotiation in Asian countries than that is done in the West. Edward hall divides cultures into “monochromic” and “polychromic” (Mitchell 105). Monochromic time (linear) emphasizes schedules, segmentation, and promptness. Negotiators from this culture tend to do things one at a time. They want to make a deal quickly, then the next. Short-term transactions are valued. Americans are of monochromic time perceptions in nature. While Chinese tend to be polychromic. Polychromic time (circular) stresses involvement of people completion of transaction rather than adhere to a present schedule. Time is not limited. Not being hasty is a sign of wisdom and sincerity. They tend to do more than one thing at a time. Negotiators usually stress the process rather than how long it takes to get there. The differences in temporal views can affect the negotiation process and outcome.

2.1.5 Results Versus Relationships

A lack of understanding different views on relationships may produce obstacles that actually hinder business negotiations. In Chinese culture, proper human relationships are considered as the basis of society. Building long-term relationships is the most important, especially in doing business. Chinese believe that mutual interests and friendships should be paid much attention to in the negotiation process, so socialization, including small talks over tea and other entertainments during the beginning stage of negotiation is necessary. Negotiators from relationship-oriented culture place high value on friendly relationships and are not comfortable with a strong result-driven negotiation process.

Business in China is not about doing business between organizations, but about doing business between people. You have business when you have established and interpersonal relationship. Chinese negotiators will naturally take a people-oriented approach toward negotiations; they do business with you, not with your company. (Gelfand & Brett 235)




Compared to the Chinese, American negotiators emphasize results or task over the relationships involved in negotiation. With the can-do spirit, Americans believe that man can set his objective, then act to realize it by changing the environment. Thus, Americans negotiate what specific things they can do and usually are driven by the tasks. Results, rather than relationships are paramount. American negotiators concern about the price, quality and guarantees of the product or service. A sale can be closed on the first meeting. They spend five or ten minutes introducing each other and then are eager to get down to the issue under negotiation directly. Foster 1992 explained this idea when he writes: the American view of relationships in business has traditionally been quite different from the view held in the rest of the world. When it comes to business, we American like to business first and only then establish relationships (Foster 313). A business deal between Americans closed within a week may consume a month or even more time when it is negotiated between Americans and Chinese. Thus, differences in perceptions about relationship have direct bearings with the approach to negotiation.

2.2 Different Negotiating Styles Between China and America

Negotiators from different cultures prefer different negotiating strategies and styles. They bring their own values to the table. The understanding of negotiation in the western culture is alien to that of the eastern culture. Many Americans consider negotiations a good approach to resolve conflicts while Chinese do not like it at all. The composition of negotiation team relies greatly on culture that defines the number and the selecting of criteria of negotiators. Chinese negotiation team is often large, usually led by an old person with high status. Whereas, American team tends to be small and its negotiators are chosen on the basis of competence at the issue under negotiation. Different culture employs different way of communication. Directness and clearness are much valued by Americans. Non-verbal behaviors are seldom used. While Chinese place primacy on indirect, vague communication, and they pay much attention to non-verbal behaviors. The form of agreement is preferred differently from culture to culture. Americans emphasize explicit, written contract while Chinese stress implicit, oral agreement. Americans attend to negotiation with their lawyer while Chinese consider lawyer as a threat to destroy business relationship.

Pace of negotiation process is also affected by some cultural factors when two different cultures meet at the table. Attitude toward time or views on power distance, to a great extent, determines how fast or slowly negotiation proceeds. Chinese view time as unlimited and rarely undertake the pressure of deadline. Haste is not encouraged in this culture. While time is a commodity that can not be wasted in Americans' eyes. Time is money and Americans are driven by schedules. It seems that Americans are always in a hurry. Thus in negotiation, Americans are eager to get down directly to business and want to settle the issue as quickly as possible. Whereas, Chinese negotiators feel very uncomfortable with American haste, which they consider as disrespectful land insincere. Chinese usually spend more time building relationships with its counterpart regardless of any issues related to formal negotiation. They are patient. In many cases, Chinese do not like to take initiative to offer its position. Everyone "wait and see" and sit around seemingly decide not to do anything. By contrast, it is not uncommon that American negotiators have no hesitation to show its card even at the first meeting. Americans often get impatient and even angry at Chinese slow reaction.

In addition, the speed of making decision varies according to different views on power distance. In some culture based on hierarchy, like Chinese, decisions are made in a consensus way, most members of the team required to agree. While in many western countries, especially for Americans, the negotiators are given more authorities to decide what to do. Much time is saved in decision-making. Thus, fast process of negotiation is preferred in one culture while may be much disliked in another.




3 Recommendations for Successful Intercultural Negotiations

In the previous parts, we have observed those problems that may appear when intercultural negotiation happens. Now, attention is shift to a discussion of some behaviors that may avoid those problems or bridge the gap between understandings of negotiators with different cultures, and reach an effective negotiation. From my point of view, there are three major recommendations: understanding cultural differences, improving communication competence and being patient enough. These would start you on the path to success in international business negotiations.

3.1 Understanding Cultural Differences

Since culture does matter much in international negotiations, the first step is to have a good understanding of cultures, not only your own but also your opponent’s. Prepare that by studying your opponent’s culture, including history, politics, economic environment, and custom or taboos. Recognize that cultural differences do exist and then learn to accept that. A foreign negotiator is different from you, in perception, beliefs, and behaviors. Different cultures employ different ways of doing business. From gift giving to lawyer used in negotiation, each culture has its unique measure that guides the negotiating process. Keep an open mind to it (王正元105). Not everything that you think is reasonable and acceptable in your own culture is not necessarily acceptable in other cultures. What you consider as effective to an event may seem quite the opposite to someone from another culture. A reaction is perceived proper may appear arrogant, even an insult by another. Therefore, to be an effective negotiator, one should recognize and accept the differences, and respect the opponent’s culture. To know, beware of, respect and accept the culture of the other side will greatly contribute to a smooth negotiation process. For example, a Chinese corporation and its U.S.-based subsidiary negotiated on a proposal by the U.S. side to buy cash dispensers for use in banks through out the United States. The Chinese corporation was to manufacture and ship these cash dispensers while the U.S. would market, distribute and sell them to bands. During the negotiation, the Chinese became accustomed to the earnest, direct, and aggressive style of the American negotiators, and anticipate this behavior from the U.S. side. However, what surprised the Chinese was that, when faced with a conflict, the Americans seemed to switch to a classic Chinese style of avoidance and indirectness. These tactics suggested the two parties were preparing more seriously for their negotiations each other by trying to adjust to different negotiation styles. In the end, both sides resolved outstanding price and design problems to their mutual satisfaction. (Curry 60)

3.2 Improving Communication Competence

Negotiation, to some extend, can be considered as a case of communication. The introduction for getting to know each other, greeting for good wish, and bargaining proceed in a form of communication-verbal or non-verbal. So, prepare for the problems which that may arise when intercultural negotiation happens. English is the language of international business negotiation. An excellent negotiator should have a good master of English, expressing himself well and doing well in listening to others. If English is your second language, you can ask you negotiating partner to speak slowly and repeat the points you want to know clearly. When communicating with people from another culture, make sure that your message is well understood by avoiding colloquial expressions, slang and idioms, Culture is an important factor that hinders fluent communication, and the same word may have different meaning from culture to culture. Thus do not assume that what you mean is what the other side perceives in the same way. If time enough, learning the language of the opponent you are going to deal with will be advantaged and handy. On the other hand, negotiators should be sensitive to non-verbal behaviors that play an important role in sending message. The culture like Chinese puts a lot of weight on silence, long pause, facial expressions, eye contact and the like. Learning these behaviors will help you read between the lines and catch what your opponent implies. Finally, a good negotiator needs to tolerate direct or indirect communication. People from American culture regard direct, clear talking as an effective way of communication while we Chinese may think indirectness is very helpful for maintaining harmonious relationship. Knowing how to adjust to the difference can be productive to a successful business negotiation.

3.3 Being Patient in Intercultural Communications

Negotiating domestically is not easy, needless to say intercultural negotiation that involves people from different cultures. Not all cultures conduct business at the same model and the pace. Being patient is one of the characteristics for a good negotiator. During the negotiation process, negotiators need to practice patience in many aspects. First of all, preparation before the face-to-face negotiation will be crucial if one wants to go smoothly in negotiation. Knowing sufficiently the country and the culture of the party with whom you are going to negotiate is time-consuming. You can not learn everything in a day, a week or even a year. Good preparation may be half done. Thus, being patient is needed even before the real negotiation starts.

Secondly, people from different cultures conduct business at different pace. For instance, Americans always seem to be in a hurry in the eyes of foreigners. They prefer to get down to business directly at the beginning of negotiation. While Chinese culture, rely more on harmonious relationship, so considerable time is spent in building relationship with the partner, not discussing business first. Haste in decision-making will mean unnecessary concessions. Allow your opponent to decide in his own time. “If you think you can fly in, negotiate, sign, and fly out the same day or the next, you are in for considerable disappointment, frustrations and an agreement—if any—that is not in your company’s last interest.”(Berger 212) Do not try to reach an agreement regardless of the value of concessions. Do not create any self-imposed deadlines only to take home a signed contract. Furthermore, some cultures regard signing a contract as not the termination of negotiation but a beginning of a long-term business relationship. They do not mind resuming the negotiation if any problems occur after a contract is signed. In any case, negotiation should not be rushed, anything that reflects impatience, like loss of temper, expressing criticism in public will likely to be a source of trouble.

Therefore, try to be patient for a long-term, painstaking negotiation when meeting people from American culture. This will be the basic of reaching a successful business negotiation between China and America.




Conclusion

Negotiators from different cultures prefer to use different negotiating strategies and styles. Cultural differences influence negotiation in many aspects, even before the face-to-face negotiation starts. Owing to cultural differences referred above, American and Chinese negotiators value quite differently on the lawyers, time, space, negotiations, person's word and many other aspects in the business negotiations between them. A lack of understanding of the cultural factors playing in negotiation across borders, negotiators must take the time to sufficiently understand the culture of the other side, and the approach that they are likely to use.

According to the exposition in this essay, the cultural differences between China and America as follows: low-context versus high-context communication, individualism versus collectivism, egalitarianism versus hierarchy, past versus future, results versus relationships. Different cultures conduct different negotiating styles. Nowadays, in order to adjust to the new international commercial environment, a negotiator should avoid bringing along his own cultural assumptions and stereotypes to the negotiating table. Paying respect to the other's culture will pave the road to reach a satisfactory agreement. A good negotiator can accept the cultural differences, respect cultural diversity and move on in order to turn the negotiation into a win-win outcome for both sides.







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Acknowledgements




I am indebted to my supervisor, Mr***. Without his guidance, encouragement and help, this thesis would never have been possible. My deepest gratitude also goes to all the teachers in college of Foreign Language Studies who taught and helped me during my four-year study in this university, especially to Ms. ***, who tried her best to offer me the convenience to conduct my research and collect the materials. With her warm encouragement and support, I finally fulfill the requirement of the degree. Meanwhile, I have learned a lot from her during the time I wrote this thesis. Besides, I am much obliged to my classmates and friends who have given me warm concern.

I would also like to show my great appreciations to my dear parents for their generous love and support all of the years.

And I am alone responsible for every flaw in this thesis.

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